Blog #15-Disease Blog: Arthritis

By definition, arthritis means "joint inflammation," and it's used to describe more than 100 different diseases and conditions that affect joints, the tissues that surround joints, and other connective tissue.

Arthritis can affect people differently. It's common in adults 65 and older, but it can affect people of all ages, races, and ethnic groups. In fact, about 1 out of every 5 adults in the United States — around 50 million people — has reported being diagnosed by their doctor with some form of arthritis.

Two of the most common forms of arthritis are osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis.Osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis have different causes, risk factors, and effects on the body:

·         Osteoarthritis pain, stiffness, or inflammation most frequently appears in the hips, knees, and hands.

·         Rheumatoid arthritis commonly affects the hands and wrists but can also affect areas of the body other than the joints.Even though they have these differences, osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis often share common symptoms:

·         Joint pain

·         Stiffness

·         Inflammation or swelling

Osteoarthritis, one of the most common forms of arthritis, is caused by normal wear and tear throughout life; this natural breakdown of cartilage tissue can be exacerbated by an infection or injury to the joints. The risk of developing osteoarthritis may be higher if you have a family history of the disease. Simple Ways to Protect Your Joints

Arthritis relief doesn't always have to come from a bottle. Maintaining a healthy weight, exercising, and using special devices to help you get around can also have a big impact on your symptoms.

Losing weight if you are overweight or obese can help take pressure off your joints. 

People with gout should avoid alcohol and foods that are high in purines, and that includes organ meats (liver, kidney), dried beans, sardines, anchovies, asparagus, and mushrooms. When the body breaks down purines, it produces uric acid, and excess uric acid causes painful crystals to deposit in the joints. Making these changes may reduce flare ups, but they almost never cure the condition

Relieving Stiff Joints With Exercise

When you're in pain, the last thing you may want to do is exercise, but it's actually one of the best things you can do for your joints. Aerobic, strength-training, and stretching exercises can all be helpful. Work with your doctor to learn what exercises are safe for you to do. Physical therapy is also a common part of treatment in people with OA. Regular exercise can also help you maintain a healthy weight.

Medications

Pain Relievers

You're probably familiar with a group of medications known asnonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). These drugs interfere with chemicals called prostaglandins in the body, which trigger pain, inflammation, and fever. Some NSAIDs are available over-the-counter for relief of pain and fever at your local drugstore, including ibuprofen (Motrin, Advil), naproxen (Aleve), and aspirin. There are also many other prescription NSAIDs available such as celecoxib (Celebrex), ketoprofen (Orudis), naproxen (Naprosyn), piroxicam (Feldene), and sulindac (Clinoril); you'll need a prescription from your doctor.

Blog #14-Skeletal Career: Athletic Trainer

Describe a day, the life, what training is required, and salary.

Athletic Trainers (ATs) are health care professionals who collaborate with physicians to provide preventative services, emergency care, clinical diagnosis, therapeutic intervention and rehabilitation of injuries and medical conditions. Students who want to become certified athletic trainers must earn a degree from an accredited athletic training curriculum. Accredited programs include formal instruction in areas such as injury/illness prevention, first aid and emergency care, assessment of injury/illness, human anatomy and physiology, therapeutic modalities, and nutrition. Classroom learning is enhanced through clinical education experiences. More than 70 percent of certified athletic trainers hold at least a master’s degree. Athletic training is often confused with personal training. There is, however, a large difference in the education, skillset, job duties and patients of an athletic trainer and a personal trainer. Athletic trainers provide physical medicine, rehabilitative and preventative services. Athletic trainers treat a breadth of patients, including but not limited to: professional, college, secondary school and youth athletes, dancers, musicians and military personnel. Athletic trainers work can work in a variety of locations including schools, physician clinics, hospitals and manufacturing plants. To become certified athletic trainer, a student must graduate with bachelors or masters degree from an accredited professional athletic training education program and pass a comprehensive test administered by the Board of Certification. Once certified, they must meet ongoing continuing education requirements in order to remain certified. Athletic trainers must also work under the direction of a physician and within their state practice act.

Blog #13-Types of Fractures

Get a description and a drawing and an xray of each type of fracture

Stable Fracture:

Stable ankle fractures involve a fracture of the outside bone of the ankle joint (the fibula), however, the ankle joint itself remains well positioned and stable. They are associated with pain and walking on the ankle is difficult or impossible due to pain. Treatment is non-operative although it often takes 6 weeks or more for the bone to heal and the total time to a complete recovery can be many months.

Open, compound fracture:

If the bone breaks in such a way that bone fragments stick out through the skin or a wound penetrates down to the broken bone, the fracture is called an "open" or compound fracture. For example, when a pedestrian is struck by the bumper of a moving car, the broken shinbone may protrude through a tear in the skin and other soft tissues. Because open fractures often involve more damage to the surrounding muscles, tendons, and ligaments than closed fractures, they have a higher risk for complications and take a longer time to heal. This type of fracture is particularly serious because once the skin is broken, infection in both the wound and the bone can occur.

Transverse fracture:

A fracture of a bone is the same as a break in the bone. A fracture of a transverse process is a break of a part of one of the bones in the spine. This part extends out from the side of the main body of the bone (called the vertebral body). A transverse process is shaped like a wing. They extend from both the left and right sides of the vertebral body.

Oblique fracture:

A fracture is a break in a bone, and is classified by a number of factors, including the fracture line, or where the break occurs in relation to the axis of the bone. The axis is the direction of the bone’s shaft. Fracture lines can be linear, transverse, longitudinal, spiral and oblique. An oblique fracture is a break which has a fracture line that runs diagonal to the bone shaft.

 Comminuted fracture:

A bone injury that results in more than 2 separate bone components is known as a comminuted fracture. Some comminuted fractures have specific names such as 'butterfly fragment' or 'segmental fracture'.

                      

Blog #12-Was John Gey Ethical?

I don't believe that Gey was ethical when he took her cells because he did not even ask for her permission and did it without anyone's consent. Even though it can help with ending the disease it can also end up being very dangerous. I don't believe it's right because he did not have consent. Half the time Henrietta had no idea what was going on, and she just did whatever was told. Even if they had permission Henrietta would not have known what it was going to be for, because they never really explained what was happening to her. But I also believe that even though it may not have been ethical to Henrietta, it was ethical to Gey because it was helping scientist. If it was not for HeLa cells, and working with them to see how they reproduce and clone, we probably would not be as lucky as we are today. Those cells helped get rid of diseases and helped scientist understand the cells up close and personal.

Blog #10-Planaria:

Quiz Questions 

       

What type of symmetry does the dugesia have?

-Bilateral

What term is used to describe how planarian can regrow its body parts?

-Regeneration

Which of the following is associated with planarian’s nervous system?

-Ganglia

Asexual reproduction can occur through a process called:

-Transverse fission

A hermaphrodite is an animal that:

-Has both male and female parts

The dugesia belongs to phylum:

-Platyhelminthes

How could a person catch a dugesia?

-Using a hook and raw liver to attract them

An animal that has no internal body cavity to hold organs is called a(n):

-Acoelomate

How does the dugesia obtain oxygen?

-Diffusion

The dugesia will tend to stay in what areas?

-Dark 

Blog #9-Tissue/Cell Center

Career: Cell Biologist

Describe a day, the life, what training is required, and salary.

Cell biologists are scientists who study cells, which are generally considered to be the building blocks of life because all living things are composed of one or more cells. A cell biologist works in the field of cell biology, which is also known as cytology. Cell biology studies all aspects of cells, from their interactions with each other and their environments to their cellular and atomic composition. A cell biologist will generally work to conduct experiments to better understand the precise nature of cells. The cell was discovered in the mid to late 1600s by Robert Hooke and the field of cell biology has developed since that point.

Cell biologists are generally very concerned with investigating both the processes and structures that occur and exist within cells. There are almost limitless combinations of structures and processes that any given cell can contain; they vary based on the purpose of the cell. A cell biologist tends to be interested in the relationship between structures and functions. Cell biologists also tend to seek similarities between different kinds of cells or between cells belonging to different species. A cell biologist is also typically very interested in proteins; there are many different kinds of proteins within cells, and each has a purpose within the cell.

Many other fields of biology are closely linked with cellular biology; a cell biologist may find his work relating to genetics, chemistry, or other fields. Cell division, for example, is the process by which cells split to produce more cells. An important part of this process is the division of strands of DNA; this is closely related to genetics. Physics and chemistry can also be very important, especially as they relate to the molecular composition of proteins. A cell biologist, then, usually needs to be knowledgeable in a variety of different fields.

There are many techniques that a cell biologist may employ when seeking greater knowledge about a given aspect of a cell or group of cells. One of the most important techniques is growing a controlled culture of cells and ensuring that no unintended contaminations enter the culture and harm the results of an experiment. Another important technique is known as transfection; it involves introducing a new gene to a cell and observing the results. There are several techniques used to determine the genetic composition of a given cell as well. An experimental cell biologist must be knowledgeable in these and in many other techniques to perform effective investigations into the nature of cells.

Cell biologists often are employed in research labs, working in government or academic settings. They may also conduct individual research. For some jobs, candidates need a bachelor's or master's degree in biology, cellular biology or a related science. To conduct independent research, a Ph.D. is typically required. Aspiring biologists can research various employers and work environments to determine exactly what kind of education will be required

Blog #8-Type of Cancer: Lung Cancer

Pick a cancer, describe symptoms, treatment, and prognosis.

Cancer: Lung Cancer

What is Lung Cancer?

Lung cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells that start off in one or both lungs; usually in the cells that line the air passages. The abnormal cells do not develop into healthy lung tissue, they divide rapidly and form tumors. As tumors become larger and more numerous, they undermine the lung’s ability to provide the bloodstream with oxygen. Tumors that remain in one place and do not appear to spread are known as “benign tumors”.

Malignant tumors, the more dangerous ones, spread to other parts of the body either through the bloodstream or the lymphatic system. Metastasis refers to cancer spreading beyond its site of origin to other parts of the body. When cancer spreads it is much harder to treat successfully.

Primary lung cancer originates in the lungs, while secondary lung cancer starts somewhere else in the body, metastasizes, and reaches the lungs. They are considered different types of cancers and are not treated in the same way.

Types of Lung Cancer:

Lung cancer can be broadly classified into two main types based on the cancer's appearance under a microscope: non-small cell lung cancer and small cell lung cancer. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for 80% of lung cancers, while small cell lung cancer accounts for the remaining 20%.

NSCLC can be further divided into four different types, each with different treatment options:

§  Squamous cell carcinoma or epidermoid carcinoma. As the most common type of NSCLC and the most common type of lung cancer in men, squamous cell carcinoma forms in the lining of the bronchial tubes.

§  Adenocarcinoma. As the most common type of lung cancer in women and in nonsmokers, adenocarcinoma forms in the mucus-producing glands of the lungs.

§  Bronchioalveolar carcinoma. This type of lung cancer is a rare type of adenocarcinoma that forms near the lungs' air sacs.

§  Large-cell undifferentiated carcinoma. A rapidly growing cancer, large-cell undifferentiated carcinomas form near the outer edges or surface of the lungs.

Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) is characterized by small cells that multiply quickly and form large tumors that travel throughout the body. Almost all cases of SCLC are due to smoking.

Symptoms of lung cancer:

Symptoms of lung cancer that are in the chest:

·         Coughing, especially if it persists or becomes intense

·         Pain in the chest, shoulder, or back unrelated to pain from coughing

·         A change in color or volume of sputum

·         Shortness of breath

·         Changes in the voice or being hoarse

·         Harsh sounds with each breath (stridor)

·         Recurrent lung problems, such as bronchitis or pneumonia

·         Coughing up phlegm or mucus, especially if it is tinged with blood

·         Coughing up blood

If the original lung cancer has spread, a person may feel symptoms in other places in the body. Common places for lung cancer to spread include other parts of the lungs, lymph nodes, bones, brain, liver, and adrenal glands.

Symptoms of lung cancer that may occur elsewhere in the body:

·         Loss of appetite or unexplained weight loss

·         Muscle wasting (also known as cachexia)

·         Fatigue

·         Headaches, bone or joint pain

·         Bone fractures not related to accidental injury

·         Neurological symptoms, such as unsteady gait or memory loss

·         Neck or facial swelling

·         General weakness

·         Bleeding

·         Blood clots

Prevention:

 There's no sure way to prevent lung cancer, but you can reduce your risk if you:

·         Don't smoke. If you've never smoked, don't start. Talk to your children about not smoking so that they can understand how to avoid this major risk factor for lung cancer. Begin conversations about the dangers of smoking with your children early so that they know how to react to peer pressure.

·         Stop smoking. Stop smoking now. Quitting reduces your risk of lung cancer, even if you've smoked for years. Talk to your doctor about strategies and stop-smoking aids that can help you quit. Options include nicotine replacement products, medications and support groups.

·         Avoid secondhand smoke. If you live or work with a smoker, urge him or her to quit. At the very least, ask him or her to smoke outside. Avoid areas where people smoke, such as bars and restaurants, and seek out smoke-free options.

·         Test your home for radon. Have the radon levels in your home checked, especially if you live in an area where radon is known to be a problem. High radon levels can be remedied to make your home safer. For information on radon testing, contact your local department of public health or a local chapter of the American Lung Association.

·         Avoid carcinogens at work. Take precautions to protect yourself from exposure to toxic chemicals at work. Follow your employer's precautions. For instance, if you're given a face mask for protection, always wear it. Ask your doctor what more you can do to protect yourself at work. Your risk of lung damage from workplace carcinogens increases if you smoke.

·         Eat a diet full of fruits and vegetables. Choose a healthy diet with a variety of fruits and vegetables. Food sources of vitamins and nutrients are best. Avoid taking large doses of vitamins in pill form, as they may be harmful. For instance, researchers hoping to reduce the risk of lung cancer in heavy smokers gave them beta carotene supplements. Results showed the supplements actually increased the risk of cancer in smokers.

·         Exercise most days of the week. If you don't exercise regularly, start out slowly. Try to exercise most days of the week.

Causes of Lung Cancer:

Smoking causes the majority of lung cancers — both in smokers and in people exposed to secondhand smoke. But lung cancer also occurs in people who never smoked and in those who never had prolonged exposure to secondhand smoke. In these cases, there may be no clear cause of lung cancer.

Treatment:

Surgery

A surgical oncologist is a doctor who specializes in treating cancer using surgery. For lung cancer, a thoracic surgeon is specially trained to perform lung cancer surgery. The goal of surgery is the complete removal of the lung tumor and the nearby lymph nodes in the chest. The tumor must be removed with a surrounding border or margin of normal lung tissue. A “negative margin” means that when the pathologist examines the lung, or piece of lung that has been removed by the surgeon, no cancer was found in the healthy tissue surrounding the tumor.

The following types of surgery may be used for lung cancer:

Lobectomy. The lungs have five lobes, three in the right lung and two in the left lung. For NSCLC, the removal of an entire lobe of the lung in a procedure called a lobectomy is often the most effective type of surgery, even when the lung tumor is very small.

A wedge. If the surgeon cannot remove an entire lobe of the lung, the surgeon can remove the tumor, surrounded by a margin of normal lung.

Segmentectomy. This is another way to remove the cancer when an entire lobe of the lung cannot be removed. In a segmentectomy, the surgeon removes the portion of the lung where the cancer developed.

Pneumonectomy. If the tumor is close to the center of the chest, the surgeon may have to remove the entire lung.

Radiofrequency ablation. Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) is the use of a needle inserted into the tumor to destroy the cancer with an electrical current. It is sometimes used for a lung tumor that cannot be removed with the other types of surgery listed above.

The time it takes to recover from lung surgery depends on how much of the lung is removed and the health of the patient before surgery. Talk with your health care team about what to expect before your surgery, including recovery time and possible side effects.

Adjuvant therapy

Adjuvant therapy is treatment that is given after surgery to lower the risk of the lung cancer returning. Adjuvant therapy may include radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and possibly targeted therapy. Each therapy is described below. It is intended to get rid of any lung cancer cells that may still be in the body after surgery. It also can decrease the risk of recurrence, though there is always some risk that the cancer will come back.

Along with staging, other tools can help determine prognosis and help you and your doctor make decisions about whether adjuvant therapy would be helpful in your treatment. In addition, ASCO provides several Decision Aids to help patients talk with their doctors about the risks and benefits of chemotherapy after surgery. Consider using one of the following decision aids to start a discussion with your doctor about adjuvant therapy: Stage IB, Stage II, or Stage III.

Radiation therapy

Radiation therapy is the use of high energy x-rays or other particles to destroy cancer cells. If you need radiation therapy, you will be asked to see a specialist called a radiation oncologist, a doctor who specializes in giving radiation therapy to treat cancer. The most common type of radiation treatment is called external-beam radiation therapy, which is radiation given from a machine outside the body. A radiation therapy regimen (schedule) usually consists of a specific number of treatments given over a set period of time. This can vary from just a few days of treatment to several weeks. When radiation treatment is given using implants, it is called internal radiation therapy, or brachytherapy. However, brachytherapy is rarely used for lung cancer.

Like surgery, radiation therapy cannot be used to treat widespread cancer. Radiation only destroys cancer cells directly in the path of the radiation beam. It also damages the normal cells in its path; for this reason, it cannot be used to treat large areas of the body.

Sometimes, CT scans are used to plan out exactly where to direct the radiation to lower the risk of damaging healthy parts of the body. This is called intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) or stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT). It is not an option for all patients, but it may be used for patients with early disease and small tumors when surgery is not an option.

Patients with lung cancer who receive radiation therapy often experience fatigue and loss of appetite. If radiation therapy is given to the neck or center of the chest, patients may also develop a sore throat and have difficulty swallowing. Patients may also notice skin irritation, similar to sunburn, where the radiation was directed. Most side effects go away soon after treatment is finished.

If the radiation therapy irritates or inflames the lung, patients may develop a cough, fever, or shortness of breath months and sometimes years after the radiation therapy ends. About 15% of patients develop this condition, called radiation pneumonitis. If it is mild, radiation pneumonitis does not need treatment and goes away on its own. If it is severe, a patient may need treatment for radiation pneumonitis with steroid medications, such as prednisone (multiple brand names). Radiation therapy may also cause permanent scarring of the lung tissue near where the original tumor was located. Typically, the scarring does not cause symptoms. However, severe scarring can cause a permanent cough and shortness of breath. For this reason, radiation oncologists carefully plan the treatments using CT scans of the chest to lessen the amount of normal lung tissue exposed to radiation

 Prognosis:

Unfortunately, compared with some other types of cancer, the outlook for lung cancer is not very good. Overall, of all types of lung cancer, about 32 out of every 100 people (32%) will live for at least 1 year after they are diagnosed. Around 10 out of every 100 people (10%) will live for at least 5 years. And about 5 out of every 100 people (5%) will live for at least 10 years.